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The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. That is, individuals who had higher levels of conscientiousness, regardless of gender and society, were more likely Prostitutes Sobue participate in regular physical check-ups even after controlling for Prostitutes Sobue other personality traits, education, age, marital status, and race.

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For generations, smoking has been associated with Prostitutes Sobue Hirokawa et al. For example, it was common to associate women-smokers with prostitutes in the early 19th century Nagashima, In the past, young women-smokers were regarded as showy and slovenly by both women and men Tanikawa, However, as awareness of the health effects of smoking grew, it also was increasingly seen as a risky health behavior for women and their offspring Nishi et al. Moreover, with their Prostitutes Sobue social positions and power, Japanese women have increased their influence on social workplace smoking by fighting for smoke-free environments Yoshimura, Using samples from the United States and Japan, we investigate how associations between conscientiousness and smoking vary by sociocultural context and gender.

Prostitutes Sobue on the above historical and cultural perspectives on smoking, we expect that in the United States, there will be no gender difference regarding the association between conscientiousness and smoking. For both men and women, current smokers will show less conscientiousness Prostitutes Sobue former smokers, with non-smokers showing the highest levels of conscientiousness Hypothesis 1a.

Given Prostitutes Sobue individuals with lower levels of conscientiousness may have more problems with impulse control and are less likely to succeed in quitting smoking Leung et al. In contrast, we hypothesize that in Japan where smoking is more prevalent particularly for menless stigmatized, and considered an everyday social activity, the protective Prostitutes Sobue of conscientiousness on smoking will be less evident.

Given the gendered cultural contexts of smoking in Japan, among Japanese women, current or former smokers will be less conscientious than never-smokers Hypothesis 2a ; among men, current or former smokers will be more conscientious than never-smokers Hypothesis Prostitutes Sobue.

The United States and Japan provide interesting contexts to investigate these hypotheses because both countries have similar levels of industrialization Prostitutes Sobue differ substantially in the Prostitutes Sobue and sociocultural structures that may facilitate or inhibit micro-level factors personality traits related to smoking among men and among women.

MIDUS is a national Prostitutes Sobue that investigates the role of social, psychological, and behavioral factors Prostitutes Sobue explaining variation in physical and mental health among United States residents. Both surveys contain personality traits, status of cigarette smoking, and sociodemographic characteristics.

C onscientiousness is an index score generated by averaging five items [organized, responsible, hardworking, thorough, and careless reverse coded ]. Respondents were asked how much each of the four items describes them on a scale ranging from 1 not Prostitutes Sobue all to 4 a lot.

Higher scores on the index indicate higher Prostitutes Sobue of conscientiousness. We standardized the index of conscientiousness to have a mean of zero and standard deviation of one in each sample to facilitate cross-cultural comparisons. Given that other personality Prostitutes Sobue are also associated with smoking Hakulinen et al.

Participants from both MIDUS and MIDJA were asked a series of questions regarding their smoking habits: 1 whether they had ever smoked cigarettes, 2 whether they had ever smoked regularly, and 3 whether they currently Prostitutes Sobue cigarettes regularly.

Based on this information, we created a set of three dummy variables for smoking statuses: never smokers never smoked regularly or Prostitutes Sobue smoked at allformer smokers smoked regularly in the past, but not at the time of the surveyand current smokers. Age was included as Prostitutes Sobue continuous variable. For raceProstitutes Sobue were asked to indicate the best description of their racial category. Responses were recoded as 1 white Prostitutes Sobue 0 non-white.

To test our hypotheses, we used one-way ANOVA to determine whether there were significant differences in the means of conscientiousness across smoking groups never, former, current smokers and whether there were gender differences in the association.

Correcting for multiple comparisons reduces the possibility of a significant finding being attributed to mere chance Tukey, Then, we used multinomial logistic regression to estimate the association between conscientiousness and smoking status by using never smoked as a baseline category of the outcome variable versus former smoking and current smoking Table 2.

Each sample was analyzed separately with gender-stratified models, and we tested for gender differences by pooling data from both genders and testing gender interaction terms. Finally, we performed sensitivity analysis to show that Prostitutes Sobue results are robust to potential measurement issues regarding Prostitutes Sobue related to health behaviors Appendix Table 1.

All multivariate models control for the other four personality traits and sociodemographic characteristics. Conscientiousness across smoking statuses, by culture and gender. Summary of multinomial logistic regression predicting smoking status, by culture and gender. All analyses Prostitutes Sobue implemented using Stata Descriptive statistics [mean SD or proportion] for all variables are presented by sample and gender in Table 1.

The smoking Prostitutes Sobue among Japanese men was higher than that among United States men. Figure 1 shows the results of ANOVA to investigate the differences in conscientiousness among current smokers, former smokers, and those who never smoked in the United States and Japan.

For both samples, levels of conscientiousness significantly varied by smoking status. In the United States sample, those who never regularly smoked had the Prostitutes Sobue levels of conscientiousness, former smokers had the second highest levels of conscientiousness, and current smokers had the lowest levels of conscientiousness, regardless of gender. After performing multiple comparisons, we found that levels of conscientiousness are statistically different between non-smokers and current smokers Prostitutes Sobue both genders.

In contrast, the Japanese sample followed a different pattern and Prostitutes Sobue by gender: for men, former smokers had higher levels of conscientiousness 0. For women, former smokers Prostitutes Sobue the lowest level of conscientiousness 0. For women, former smokers had levels of conscientiousness that Prostitutes Sobue 0.

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Table 2 presents the results from the multinomial logistic regression used to investigate our hypotheses. It shows that in the United States, lower levels of conscientiousness predict increased odds of being in the current smoker group Prostitutes Sobue to the never-smoker group for both men and women, even after controlling for the other personality traits, education, age, race, and marital status.

For men, a one SD increase in conscientiousness Prostitutes Sobue associated with a 0. For women, higher levels of conscientiousness decrease the risk of becoming former smokers and current smokers. For former smokers, a one SD increase in the level of conscientiousness is associated with a 0. Similarly, a one SD increase in conscientiousness is associated with a 0. In contrast, in Japan, we found that conscientiousness is Prostitutes Sobue significantly associated with smoking status for women after controlling for all covariates.

For Japanese women, a one SD increase in conscientiousness predicts a 0. However, there is no significant association between conscientiousness and smoking status for Japanese men. The results in Table 2 may be subject to issues regarding measurement validity Prostitutes Sobue conscientiousness across different cultures and societies.

That is, our findings would be invalidated if the index of conscientiousness is related to healthy behaviors in one society the United States but not in the other society Japan. The associations between conscientiousness and a regular check-up are presented in Appendix Table 1. Prostitutes Sobue the smoking outcomes, we Prostitutes Sobue a similar pattern for both men and women in both societies.

That is, individuals who had higher levels of conscientiousness, Prostitutes Sobue of gender and society, were more likely to participate in regular physical check-ups even after controlling for the other personality traits, education, age, marital status, and race. Thus, individuals with higher levels of conscientiousness tend to adopt health-promoting behaviors.

In contrast, the meaning of smoking largely depends on the sociocultural context. Thus, the sensitivity analyses show that our findings on smoking are robust to concerns regarding measurement validity.

Prostitutes Sobue study advances previous research that has examined Prostitutes Sobue link between conscientiousness and smoking in several ways.

No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

First, the majority of previous studies have focused on Western samples Turiano et al. Our study adopted the definition of conscientiousness as a personality trait characterized by following socially prescribed Prostitutes Sobue Roberts et al.

In particular, our study explored how sociocultural conditions may interact with personality traits to Prostitutes Sobue health behaviors by comparing Japan—a collectivistic society that attaches more importance to groups and societal values and has a high prevalence of smoking particularly for men—and the United States—the exemplar individualistic society in which the social unacceptability of smoking has dramatically increased. Second, Prostitutes Sobue previous studies Prostitutes Sobue investigated whether and how gender may moderate the association between personality and smoking e.

Our study gives prominence to gendered social norms Prostitutes Sobue Japan regarding smoking behaviors. Our analyses yielded several interesting findings. First, we found that the association between Prostitutes Sobue and smoking differs by society and gender. As expected, lower levels Prostitutes Sobue conscientiousness are associated with increased odds of being in the current smoker group compared to the never-smoker group for both men and women in the United States.

Changes in attitudes and policies regarding smoking in the United States e. United States public health officials have implemented comprehensive tobacco control programs, such as restrictions on smoking in worksites and public places, tobacco taxation, and mass-media Prostitutes Sobue Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, In this social and cultural environment, the personality trait of conscientiousness is aligned with changing societal attitudes about smoking.

That is, both men and women who have higher Prostitutes Sobue of Prostitutes Sobue have more negative attitudes toward smoking and are less likely to smoke. In contrast, there is no significant association between conscientiousness and smoking status for Japanese men. The collective-oriented culture in Japan may put more emphasis on following social norms and leave Prostitutes Sobue room for individual discretion. Although the Japanese public has become more wary of smoking over the past decade Goto et al.

Further, our results suggest that gender plays different roles in patterns of smoking across societies. For men, smoking is less disapproved and more normalized in Japan than in the United States. As such, Japanese men who follow societal values are likely to choose to smoke socially rather than abstain. Although Prostitutes Sobue social stigma attached to women smokers may have relaxed recently as the socioeconomic status of women in Japan has increased Fukuda et al.

Prostitutes Sobue such, we found that among Japanese women, former smokers have lower levels of conscientiousness than current and never smokers. To the extent that smoking is seen as a masculine behavior at odds with the expression of femininity Gilman Prostitutes Sobue Xun, ; Hirokawa et al. Several limitations of our study should be noted.

That Prostitutes Sobue, our analyses cannot address how changing societal contexts relate to norms across time. Moreover, research indicates that personality traits vary by both ethnic groups and cultures related to geographical locations Allik and Mccrae, ; Brown et al.

Third, our study lacks Prostitutes Sobue and complex measures of smoking. For example, we suggested that many Japanese men may tend to be social smokers, but we have no data on whether they restrict their tobacco use to social situations. We also lack the data to measure abstinence duration for former smokers. Future research may use such an indicator to better capture how personality traits related to impulse control i.

For example, there might be other micro-level factors genetics in addition to personality traits that affect smoking behaviors Loukola Prostitutes Sobue al. Prior studies reported that personality traits conscientiousness and neuroticism are significantly related to nicotine dependence Choi et al.

Future studies would Prostitutes Sobue from including more extensive Prostitutes Sobue of covariates. Finally, although we recognize that there are cohort differences in the prevalence of smoking, we lack the statistical power to analyze such differences; the sample size of smokers, particularly among Japanese women, is too small.

Thus, longitudinal research is needed to better reveal the dynamics between macro-level sociocultural factors and micro-level personality traits.

Conscientiousness and Smoking: Do Cultural Context and Gender Matter?

Despite these limitations, our study is the first to document the influence of cultural context and gender on the association Prostitutes Sobue the personality trait of conscientiousness and the health behavior of smoking.

That is, the association between conscientiousness and smoking may be suppressed or facilitated by macro-level sociocultural factors. By providing insight into different gendered patterns of smoking in different societies, our study calls for smoking interventions that are gender-sensitive. CL initiated and designed the study, conducted the analysis, and wrote the manuscript. MG conducted the analysis and drafted the theoretical foundation of the manuscript under Prostitutes Sobue supervision of CL.

CR helped to formulate the research questions and provided critical feedback on the entire manuscript. All authors contributed to the Prostitutes Sobue and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Summary of logistic regression predicting participation in routine physical exam, by culture and gender. Front Psychol.

Published online Jul 7. Ryff 2. Carol D. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. This article was submitted to Health Psychology, a section Prostitutes Sobue the journal Frontiers in Psychology. Received Feb 17; Accepted Jun Prostitutes Sobue The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.

No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Associated Data Data Availability Statement The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the Prostitutes Sobue author.

Abstract Prior studies have found that conscientiousness has a protective effect against smoking, but evidence for this relationship mostly comes Prostitutes Sobue Western contexts. Keywords: culture, health, smoking, stigma, gender, Japan, United States. Introduction Personality traits are well-established predictors of health Prostitutes Sobue health behaviors.

Background Conscientiousness and Smoking Individual differences in personality traits predict various health outcomes Prostitutes Sobue et al.

Frontiers | Conscientiousness and Smoking: Do Cultural Context and Gender Matter? | Psychology

Societal and Historical Contexts of Smoking Tobacco consumption is one of the leading preventable causes of mortality globally, accounting Prostitutes Sobue more than seven million deaths each year World Health Organization [WHO], Aims and Hypotheses of the Present Study Using samples from the United States and Japan, we Prostitutes Sobue how associations between conscientiousness and smoking vary by sociocultural context and gender.

Measures Both surveys contain personality traits, status of cigarette smoking, and sociodemographic characteristics. Cigarette Smoking Participants from both MIDUS and MIDJA were asked a series of questions regarding their smoking Prostitutes Sobue 1 whether they had ever smoked cigarettes, Prostitutes Sobue whether they had ever smoked regularly, and 3 whether they currently smoke cigarettes regularly.

Analytic Strategies To test our hypotheses, we used one-way ANOVA to determine whether there were significant differences in the means of conscientiousness across smoking groups never, former, current smokers and whether there were gender differences in the association. Open in a separate window.

Prostitutes Sobue Descriptive statistics [mean SD or proportion] for all variables are presented by sample and gender in Table 1. Sensitivity Analysis The results in Table 2 may be subject to issues regarding measurement validity of conscientiousness across different cultures and societies. Discussion This study advances previous research that has examined the link between conscientiousness and smoking in several ways. Limitations and Conclusions Several limitations of our study should be noted.

Data Availability Statement The datasets generated for this Prostitutes Sobue are available on request Prostitutes Sobue the corresponding author.

Author Contributions CL initiated and Prostitutes Sobue the study, conducted the analysis, and wrote the manuscript. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could Prostitutes Sobue construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes Funding. Prostitutes Sobue Abe S. Smokers are extraverted in Japan: smoking habit and the big five personality traits. SAGE Open 9 : Toward a geography of personality traits. Cross Cult. Control 9 3—8. Psychosocial factors associated with smoking and drinking among Japanese early adolescent boys and girls: cross-sectional study. Time to Prostitutes Sobue cigarette in the morning as an index of Prostitutes Sobue to quit smoking: implications for nicotine dependence.